Krijtstraat 6 – 12 | Court of the Lords of Arkel & Great School (2002)

On August 12, 2002, a unique archaeological investigation began. In the Krijtstraat, at the location where a new V&D opened its doors at the end of 2003, an enormous treasure trove of finds and data emerged in a relatively short time.

The reason for the investigation was the planned construction of a new department store. Until recently, there were several houses and a school building here. Since the new construction would disturb the archaeological remains, the opportunity was given to investigate the site for seven weeks between demolition and new construction.

Column in memory of the lords of Arkel in the Struisvogelstraat

Goal

The main aim of the research was to map the nature and location of the (Hof or Huis) van Arkel and the Grote School, as well as to gain insight into the earliest habitation and development of the site.

Findings

During the research it turned out that the terrain was already developed and inhabited in the 13th century, about half a century earlier than other parts of the city. Around 1400 two large buildings were built on the terrain: one as a Grote School and the other as a luxury house, probably owned by the lords of Arkel.

The excavations of the (Great, later Latin) School provide a good insight into education, especially in the 16th century. Several wealthy families lived in the nearby building in the 17th century. It seems that the complex known as the Hof van Arkel extended even further south, towards Hoge Torenstraat. This would mean that important remains of the complex are still present in that part of the building block. This could concern both underground remains and elements that can still be found in the current buildings. It is therefore advisable to closely monitor any construction or excavation activities in this area and to conduct temporary archaeological or building history research.

The research was carried out on behalf of the municipality of Gorinchem and carried out by BAAC in close cooperation with Hollandia Archaeologists and an enthusiastic group of volunteers.

Overview of the excavation from the tower of the Grote Kerk

Question

Since only limited historical data regarding the site were available prior to the excavation, the questions were quite general. Furthermore, it was known in advance that choices would have to be made in view of the expected complexity of the soil archive, the size of the site and the high time pressure in the field. Prior to the research, J. van Doesburg (National Service for Archaeological Heritage) drew up a programme of requirements in which the most important questions were formulated:

• What is the stratigraphic structure of the terrain?
• What is the nature and age of the traces of habitation?
• Is there a tournament field and/or a house of the gentlemen of Arkel?

During the research, some additional questions were formulated, on the basis of which specific choices were made in the field. It was decided to focus on the construction on the Krijtstraat, since the main buildings were located on this side until the 19th century. The main buildings of the Latin School and the possible Huis van Arkel were also located on this side. Furthermore, efforts would be made to create both a north-south and an east-west profile across the site in order to gain insight into the subsoil and the development of the site.

Well map archaeological research Krijtstraat

How We Work

Twelve work pits were constructed on the research site, with which approximately 75 to 80% of the surface was investigated (see pit map). The number of surfaces differs per pit and varies from 1 to 6, depending on the quantity and complexity of the traces and the stratigraphy. The part that was not investigated concerns the northwestern part of the site where there were deep disturbances of the demolished crawl spaces of the disappeared buildings. Four work pits (pit 7 north, 10, 11 and 12) were not deepened to the natural subsoil due to lack of time. A total of 25 profiles and elevations of walls were documented. All drawn surfaces and profiles were laid out mechanically and cleaned up by hand. Everything was then photographed and drawn on a scale of 1:20. Finds were collected from the traces and raised layers and the masonry was further investigated for phasing, masonry and brick sizes. The contents of the cesspits were sieved and sampled for research into botanical remains. In total, 422 find numbers were issued and several thousand finds were recovered. In addition, almost 600 traces were recognized.

Prior to the elaboration, a selection was made of the finds and find complexes to be described. Due to the large quantities of finds, it was decided not to include the elaboration of several cesspits in the report. The find material was processed and stored in the depot of the municipality of Gorinchem.

The results

The excavation has yielded a wealth of data on the construction and development of the site and its construction. The results can be divided into a number of elements:

The natural surface of the terrain

The inner city of Gorinchem and thus the research area lies on riverbank deposits of both the river Linge (east of the area) and the Merwede (south of the area). The Linge was active from around 200 BC and during this period deposited sand and loam close to the river and clay further away from the river. These deposits stopped around 1307 when the Linge was dammed near Tiel. In addition to the Linge, the Merwede also played an important role. This river has been active since the 4th century AD. The deposits of sand and loam along the Merwede and the Linge at the location of the inner city probably stopped around the time that raising was started here in the 13th century. The natural deposits of the Linge and the Merwede were found under the later raising packages and consist of compact gray clay. Humus spots and white (chalk?) dots are locally present. In deeper layers the clay contains light grey to yellowish spots. In a number of profiles the natural clay shows a slightly more humus band, which is probably related to an old vegetation level. On the north side of the terrain this is at 0,30 - 0,20 m -NAP; on the south side at 1,50 m -NAP. The height of the original 13th century ground level is not entirely clear due to later holes and other disturbances. This ground level seems to slope from 0,00 m -NAP in the north-east of the terrain to 0,50 m -NAP in the south-east and 1,00 m -NAP in the south-west.

The exploitation and earliest habitation (ca. 1250-ca.1400)

The excavated area was first raised after the exploitation. Material from the oldest raising layers can be dated to the 13th century. Although no clear parcel division was found, it is not impossible that there have been multiple parcels since the exploitation. In the northern part of the excavation site, a number of walking or floor levels were found, which probably correspond to wooden buildings on the site. These floor levels do not correspond to the stratigraphy on the southern part, where the levels are on average slightly lower. The relationship between the two parts of the site cannot be determined properly, as certain parts were severely disturbed.

Northern part

As already mentioned, three living or walking levels were found on the northern part of the site. These levels are separated by raised layers of grey clay and grey river sand. Prior to the oldest level, a raise of 20 to 30 cm with blue-grey clay with humus spots and a single point of brick (track 341) took place. The oldest level (track 322) consists of a thin band of humus clay and lies at 0,30 m+NAP. A small piece of brick floor (track 45)13 was observed here. Since it is not clear what the associated house looked like in this period, the function of this piece of floor is not clear; it could be either a remnant of a hearth or a strip of brick at the location of the wall. No further poles or other structures were observed that are certainly related to this level. It seems that the site was raised and levelled with dirty grey clay due to subsidence. The thickness of this package varies from 5 to 20 cm.

Beaker, proto stoneware, ca. 1250-1300.

The middle level, see drawing (track 320) (0,20 NAP+ to 0,50 NAP+) consists of dirty humus clay with a lot of organic material from pieces of wood and reed stems. The level has a slightly curved course with the highest point in the middle of the later plot 2. A structure can be connected to this level. It concerns a small building with dimensions of at least 6,50 m by 3,50 m. The poles are buried to a depth of 0,43 m to 0,15 m -NAP. To prevent the poles from subsiding, they rest on horizontal planks (slippers). There is still some uncertainty about the floor plan and the construction of the house. Three rows of poles were found with a mutual distance of 2,25 m and 1,25 m. There seems to be a kind of side aisle on the north side, but in that case a side aisle would also be expected on the south side. Although this has not been found, it cannot be ruled out that there was a southern side aisle. Incidentally, a house has been excavated on the Warmoesstraat in Amsterdam with also one side aisle, to which a stable function is attributed (Baart 2001, p.159-174). The width of the house could therefore have been either 3,50 or approximately 4,75 m. The length is also unclear. It is not unlikely that the house continued further, especially on the west side. Wooden beams were located between the wooden posts at floor level. A section of such a beam has been preserved at the presumed front facade. A wickerwork or wooden wall would have been attached to these beams. Houses with such small dimensions are not unusual in early urban contexts, although this example from Gorinchem is very small. (Baart 2001, p. 159-174, Carmiggelt 1997, p. 140-179 and Veeckman 2001, p. 143-157) However, a function as a workshop is not excluded. South of the house, just below the walking level, there were a few loose bricks at regular intervals. These could have functioned as a kind of stiepen under the poles of an outbuilding. A well was not found at this building. Unfortunately, the dendrochronological investigation of a few poles yielded no results.

Knife sheath with simple cross decoration, leather, 13th-early 14th century

From the walking level belonging to this house a lot of finds came, including a pair of scissors (from 105), a leather knife sheath (from 103) and a small drinking cup (from 47) of proto stoneware with a constricted belly. Such drinking cups are rarely found. An exact parallel is not yet known, but the example can best be compared with Beckmann 1975 table 74, no. 22. Given these finds, the building functioned in the 13th or early 14th century. After the demolition of this building, the terrain was raised with a package of gray river sand with a thickness of 20 to 50 cm (track 316)

At the next level (track 318) (0,80 NAP+) no clear building structures are known. At this level belongs a buried (ash?) pot (track 368, fnr. 93). It concerns a red grape with hook ears from the end of the 14th or beginning of the 15th century. Around the pot are pieces of brick, which suggests that it belongs to a floor level. This may correspond to the remains of a brick floor. Several finds can be associated with this level, including a complete grape with so-called hook ears (fnr. 37), which must also be dated to the 14th century.

Pincer, found on the floor level of the wooden house

After this level, the terrain is again slightly raised to approx. 1,10-1,30m + NAP. At this height, there is another floor level that has clearly been affected by fire. No clear building traces were found at this level either. There is, however, a hearth, which indicates the presence of a house. Some of the structures found probably functioned at the same time as this building. A water well (track 27) dates from the end of the 14th or beginning of the 15th century. The well was constructed from a buried barrel. A pit (track 324) cuts through the walking level and may have functioned at the same time, possibly shortly after the associated building. Pottery from the second half of the 14th century comes from this pit. Track 194 can be seen as the youngest track. This is a large bear pit with wickerwork walls. The filling dates from the first half of the 15th century. It is striking that this pit is older than the large stone house from the next phase, but that the pit was taken into account when building that house. A ground arch was constructed over the pit, probably to prevent subsidence. This means that the location of the pit was known when the wall was built or that the pit was still open. It is not even entirely impossible that the pit was still functioning after the house was built.

Beer pit with overarching ground arch (track 194)

On the northern part of the site a large number of pits were found, partly filled with manure. It is striking that the pits are grouped in rows on both sides of the house and partly behind the house. It is clear that the pits consist of several phases but it is not possible to link pits to a specific phase of the house. The pits seem, also given their location, to have functioned at the same time as the house site. The function of the pits is not clear but a (secondary?) function as a waste pit is the most obvious. Some pits contain manure and also pottery and bone material. Most of the material can be dated to the 14th century.

Southern part

Also in the southern part of the terrain there were several floor levels. Due to later excavations and disturbances these levels were difficult to follow and they were not recognizable in all profiles. It is striking that the levels are generally lower than in the northern part of the terrain. This may be due to the fact that the natural subsoil is lower here. The fact that there is a clear difference in level between both parts of the terrain can be an indication of a division into plots in this early period. Clear wooden constructions that belong to possible houses have not been found here.

Overview of the timber construction phase on the southern part of the site

The remains of several brick fireplace floors were found, which indicates that there must have been several successive wooden buildings, probably residential houses. Such fireplaces were usually centrally located in the house, in any case not along the wall. The oldest fireplace (track 183) consists of one layer of bricks on which an ash layer was found.18 The original dimensions of the fireplace are unknown; the remains measured approximately 1,0 x 1,0 metres. A floor level (track 477, 282) at 0,30-0,40 m -NAP belongs to this fireplace. The finds associated with this fireplace date from the period 1300-1400. (from 173). Directly on the previous floor level was a floor level (track 470) with a second fireplace (track 182). This hearth also consisted of a single layer of bricks.19 The dimensions were at least 0,88 m by 0,70 m. A pit (track 476/489) with material from the beginning of the 14th century cuts through this floor level. The floor level must therefore date from the end of the 13th or the beginning of the 14th century.

Another hearth is located at approximately 0,00 m NAP (track 282). The associated floor level was recognizable in the profile. After this floor, the terrain was raised again to approximately 0,30 m +NAP. This also includes a hearth (track 277). Both youngest floors date from the 14th century. There are also many holes in this part of the terrain.

Some manure pits (such as track 437, 505, 507 and 508)

Here, however, the pits appear to be larger in size and extend further to the west. Most of the pits are located behind the wooden buildings, so clearly on the rear terrain. Just like in the northern part, the pits consist of multiple phases, but it is not possible to link the pits to specific floor levels. The function of the pits is not clear in all cases. It is striking that they are larger in size than on the neighbouring plot. In a number of cases, they are clearly manure pits. Some are very deep and, given the layering, appear to have gradually become closed. One of the pits was filled with organic material, which can probably be interpreted as animal feed. Another pit contained, in addition to manure, the complete skeleton of a pig. It is not clear whether the size of the pits can be related to their function. In addition to manure, some pits contained a lot of find material.

Pig skeleton possibly as a building sacrifice at the top of track 197 seen to the north

Applying the parcelling

Although there are indications that there was already a division into plots at the time of the wooden houses, both parts of the terrain were separated from each other by a deep ditch at least from the end of the 14th century. This ditch was found on the border between plots 2 and 3, at the place where a plot boundary ran until the beginning of the 20th century.
The narrow ditch (track 404) was oriented east-west. The edges were revetted with narrow posts with wickerwork in between (track 405). Possibly a similar ditch also ran between plots 1 and 2, but this was not excavated.

The stone buildings on plot 1

From the beginning of the 15th century, probably shortly after the digging of the parcel ditch, stone houses were built on the three parcels (see drawing). Not much is known about the construction of the northernmost parcel (parcel 1) since only a narrow strip of it has been excavated.

Overview of the stone construction phase on the northern part of the site

House plot 1

Only a narrow strip of plot 1 was excavated. Between plot 1 and plot 2 there appears to be an alley with several gutters. The southern side wall of the building on plot 1, which borders the alley, was investigated (track 33-34-134). This concerns the wall of a building from presumably the 15th century. The wall is two bricks thick at foundation level. Track 34 is a widening of the wall on the side of the alley. It could be a buttress, but it is also possible that it concerns a kind of foundation. In the latter case, the rising work would not have been made of brick but of half-timbering. There are no further clear indications for this. The weight of the wall suggests that it concerns a completely brick facade. The oldest ground level belonging to this house is not clear, but is in any case higher than 1,00 m +NAP. Several renovations took place in the house later, but little can be said about this given the limited archaeological information. It is clear that a cellar was added to the building later, the south wall of which (tracks 31-32) was partly cut into tracks 33-34.

Alley between plots 1 and 2

As already mentioned, there is an alley between the two plots. It is striking that at the location of this alley there is a jump in the building line of the Krijtstraat. The building on plot 1 extends further to the east than the one on plot 2. There are several gutters in the alley. The oldest one comes from the direction of plot 1 and ends in a barrel pit (track 41), which is dug into the alley. The pit consists of two stacked barrels of 94 cm high and a diameter of 60-75 cm. The hoops are made of willow twigs. The lower barrel rests on a wooden ring, consisting of four segments, which are attached to each other with pins and nails. The pit has probably functioned as a cesspit from the beginning. The filling consisted of sedge with very little find material.

Complex of gutters in the alley between plots 1 and 2 seen to the west

The latter is not surprising given that the supply was provided by means of a gutter. The upper layers of the well were, probably when it fell into disuse, filled with sand and rubble. This contained some material that can be dated to the (first half of the) 17th century. The well therefore seems to have been filled in sometime in the 17th century, after which another gutter was constructed, which drained from the rear yard in the direction of the street (track 35). This gutter consists of a brick base, half-brick walls and brick coping stones. At the location of the filled-in water well, a side gutter flows into it from the direction of plot 1. At some point, probably in the 18th or early 19th century, the gutter was replaced by a third gutter (track 36-143). This consists of a tiled base and a half-brick side wall. The lid has not been preserved. The gutter appears to drain towards the rear yard, but this is not entirely clear due to subsidence.

The stone buildings on plot 2

Great School (15th century)

On plot 2 a large stone house was built in the course of the 15th century. It is a building of 16 to 17 m long and 8,5 m wide. The front facade runs slightly diagonally, with the building line. It is heavily constructed with walls of 50 cm thick (rising work). The foundation cuts to a width of 1 to 1,2 m.

Wickerwork pit track 194 over which a ground arch was built during the construction of the Grote School, seen towards the south

On the southwest side, a ground arch is incorporated in the foundation, to span the ale pit track 194. This ale pit must have been constructed shortly before the house was built and may have been in use for some time afterwards. The walls of the pit are covered with wickerwork. The whole has a maximum diameter of 2,40 m and a depth of at least 1,00 m. The filling consists of ale with a small amount of pottery from the first half of the 15th century. No clear remains of the original floor of the building have been found due to later disturbances. Given the height of the upper cut, this floor must have been at approximately 1,30 m +NAP. At this height (between 1,25 m +NAP and 1,45 m +) a few floors have indeed been found, but given the stone sizes, they do not seem to date from the 15th century. Due to the later disturbances, nothing can be said about the layout of the building. As already mentioned, the house borders the alley on the north side. On the south side there is also an open space between this and the neighbouring plot, which also seems to have functioned as a kind of alley. On the street side there is a wall (track 1,5) parallel to the front facade at a distance of about 355 m. Its function is not clear, but it could have been a garden wall. In that case the building in question stood completely free on a large plot.

Later renovations (15th-18th century)

In the 15th or 16th century, a large stone wall was built behind the stone building (tracks 265, 278, 395,171 and 173). Since large parts were disturbed or broken out, the floor plan cannot be reconstructed properly. It appears to be a walled space of approximately 12 m wide and at least 17 m long. It connects directly to the house. Since the space is very large and no primary internal walls have been found, it is suspected that this is a walled courtyard or garden. Striking are three round foundations of columns (tracks 272, 284 and 285) that were found at a distance of approximately 2,5 m from the outer walls.

Column (track 284) of the gallery on the back yard of the Grote School seen to the east

They consist partly of chopped secondary used bricks. It seems to be the columns of a gallery around the courtyard. The south wall of the courtyard probably corresponds to the plot boundary between plots 2 and 3. There was a garden wall here, of which a start (track 162) has been found. This plot boundary continues to the Krijtstraat. This has created a space between the 15th century stone house and the neighbouring plot. It seems that this zone was split lengthwise into two parts at the same time as the construction of the courtyard. How we should imagine this is not entirely clear, but probably there was a long narrow building against the neighbouring plot.

A large cesspit was constructed under this building (track 39). The finds from this date between the beginning of the 15th and the beginning of the 17th century, with an emphasis on the second half of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century. The cesspit was a so-called wet cesspit. This means that there was permanent water in it and the fillings formed a kind of sludge in which all heavy objects sank to the bottom. As a result, no stratigraphy is recognizable in the pit.

Cesspit (track 39) seen to the south. A remnant of the chute is visible at the top.

The finds from the pit are however an important source for the function of the building and will be discussed separately below. The elongated building probably housed the toilet, among other things. There are not many archaeological clues about the further division of the terrain.

Towards the end of the 15th century, there was a large main building on this plot of land Krijtstraat with a large courtyard with colonnade behind it. This courtyard is accessible via an alley south of the main building. This alley also had a toilet, which emptied into a cesspit under the alley.

Due to disturbances, not much is known about the later phases of the complex. Only at the location of the toilet buildings have a few later phases been recognized. In this zone, gutters were constructed in the course of the 18th century or early 19th century, onto which a toilet discharged. This was located in the northwest corner of the annex and had a remarkable construction. A cast iron pan was bricked into the end of the gutter. A toilet bowl or something similar was probably located above this and the pan functioned as a kind of primitive water lock. Two similar constructions were also located on plot 3. A side gutter from plot 3 also ended on the gutter. Since the large cesspool was already out of use, the gutters probably discharged into a sewer under the Krijtstraat.

System of gutters from the 17th to the 19th century on the southern part of plot 2, seen to the west.

Primary school at the end of the 19th century

At the end of the 19th century, all the old buildings were demolished and replaced by a new complex for a primary school. This construction, together with later extensions and renovations, was recently demolished. When building the 19th century school, no use was made of the old foundations. However, the building volume is approximately the same as the old buildings. The foundations are very deep and have a wide approach. As a result, many old foundations have largely disappeared.

The stone buildings on plot 3

Stone construction phase 1 (end of the 14th century)

After the timber construction phase, at the end of the 14th century, another elevation takes place to approximately 0,40 m +NAP. Then a stone house is built of which only the northwest corner has been found (track 139, 279). This is a foundation with cuttings. The rising work is brick thick. As a result of disturbances by later buildings on this plot, nothing of the rest of the building has been preserved and it is therefore not clear what the dimensions of the building were.

Overview of the stone construction phase on the southern part of the site.

The front facade was probably located at the same place as the current building line. In that case, the building was over 10 m deep. A floor level was found at approximately 0,40 m +NAP, which belongs to the same phase (track 448). This level has been burned in locally. However, it is located outside the stone building and it is possible that there was still a wooden part behind the stone building. However, no traces of this have been found. At 3,6 m west of (behind) the stone building there was a north-south running (draining to the south) gutter (track 140). It is not clear where this gutter ran from, but the presence of such an underground infrastructure could indicate that the site was used intensively or was completely built on.

Stone construction phase 2 ('House of Arkel') ca. 1400

Probably around 1400 AD a large house was built on plot 3 (see drawing). It is a wide and relatively shallow building on the Krijtstraat of 15 m by 7,5 m. Due to the presence of a high-voltage building, the north facade could not be excavated. The house had very heavy foundations. The underside of the foundation was locally over 1,7 m wide and rested on layers of alder beams, which were placed crosswise.

Foundation with the underlying alder beams

The foundations were converted into rising work of approximately 0,60 m (2 bricks) wide by means of a large number of cuts.22 In the south-east corner it could be determined that the construction was carried out in phases. The south facade was built earlier than the west facade, whereby a start for the west facade had already been built in the south facade in the form of a standing tooth. The building probably originally had a cellar. The floor level of this was approximately 0,05 - 0,15 m + NAP. The floor consisted of bricks, laid in a herringbone pattern (track 138).

The floor was laid in a herringbone pattern (track 138).

Brick size 28,2/29,7 x 13,5/14,3 x 6,2/6,8. A primary recess was found in the west wall, in which a vertical beam was probably located. This is a wall style of the wooden ceiling of the cellar. So there was no vault. It seems that the cellar was not present across the entire width of the building. No cellar was found in the northern part. Here, at 0,90 m +NAP, there was also a brick floor in herringbone pattern (track 88). This floor is so similar in appearance and brick size to the cellar floor that it must have been approximately contemporary. In that case, the cellar covered approximately 1/3 of the house. The cellar wall from this phase was not found, but was probably located in approximately the same place as in the next phase. Given the relatively shallow cellar, the associated part of the ground floor must have protruded above street level. This created an upper room or perhaps a kind of bel-etage. Presumably in the same period as the main building on the street, a cesspit was constructed on the rear site (track 190-191-135). The filling of this was no longer present due to later changes.

View of the outside of the foundation (track 64) of the corridor behind the Huis van Arkel seen to the south

Renovations 15th-17th century

A connecting wing or corridor was built between the main building on the street and the cesspit in the 15th century. The north wall of this (track 64) has been excavated. On the inside there were piers, which probably belong to a stone vault. The south wall of the corridor has not been excavated but was probably in the same line as the south wall of the main building and the cesspit. The floor in the corridor was at approx. 0,5-0,6 m +NAP and was originally made of loam. As mentioned, there was a cesspit behind the corridor. It is likely that the corridor provided access to a toilet space above the cesspit. The cesspit was rebuilt when the corridor was built (track 203). The filling of this pit yielded finds from the second half of the 16th century and possibly the early 17th century.

Cesspool (track 203) after emptying, seen looking south.

In the course of the 16th century, the floor of the cellar in the main building was raised to 0,50-0,60 m +NAP. At the same time, an inner wall (track 90) was constructed, which separated the cellar from the rest of the building. This wall was in the same place as the side wall of the earlier phase of the cellar. The new floor was originally made of loam but was soon replaced by a tiled floor. A barrel pit was constructed in the south-east corner of the cellar on that occasion (track 44). However, the filling also contained a quantity of bear-like material and shards from the mid-17th century (find number 58). Although the filling suggests a function as a cesspit, it is very small for that. A scrubbing pit for the cellar floor is more obvious. Part of the foundation cuts were broken away for the construction of the pit. Considering the height of the floor, it is not clear whether there was still a cellar in this period or whether the floor was level with the street level. The associated floors in the hallway behind the house are at approximately the same height in any case. From the main building, the hallway was accessible by means of a door, which was secondarily installed in the west facade (track 200). To the north of the hallway was an open area and a second extension behind the main wing (track 238, 269). This extension was approximately square: 5,5 x 5,5 m.

During the construction of this (track 269), an existing trough with wickerwork sheet piling (track 214) was taken into account by means of a ground arch and a beam construction. The situation is comparable to the construction of the northern neighbouring building. Here too, the wickerwork trough served as a cesspit until shortly before construction. The diameter was a maximum of 1,80 m and the depth was approx. 1,30 m below the bottom of the foundation. The contents consisted of septic tank and a relatively small amount of pottery from the second half of the 15th century. There are no indications that the trough was still in use after the wall was built. The floor level in the extension in question has not been preserved but was probably approx. 1,20 m +. Nothing of a possible internal layout had been preserved.

Round construction (track 50) behind the Huis van Arkel seen to the east.

In a subsequent phase, probably in the second half of the 16th century, a round brick construction with a diameter of approximately 2,50 m (track 50) was built halfway between the corridor and the extension. This is a solid brick foundation of several layers thick, which was cold-bricked against the rear facade. The construction is not founded very deeply, but it is solid. The function is not yet known. Initially, a staircase tower was thought to be used, but the shallow foundation seems to be too light for this. Possibly only a staircase was needed to bridge one level, but no parallels are known for this. A function as an oven is also unlikely given the construction, location and the lack of traces of fire.

View of the outside of the foundation (track 48) of the Huis van Arkel

The space between the round foundation and the corridor was simultaneously provided with a wall, which created a transverse corridor (track 49). In addition, a passage was made in the old corridor wall (track 64) (track 192). The floor level in this corridor was approximately 1,00 m +NAP. There was also a passage in the rear facade of the main wing. However, the floor in the transverse corridor was approximately 40 cm higher than in the main wing, which is why a small staircase of two steps was constructed in the main wing (track 136). The steps were provided with a roll layer. A special construction was recognizable on the sides of the steps. In order to keep the roll layer together, a kind of iron clamp was fitted in the step, which was bent at the side. This clamp prevented the stones from coming loose from the roll layer.

Staircase (track 136) to the cellar provided with roller layers and reinforced with iron staples, seen to the south.

Between the round foundation and the square extension there was a beer cellar (track 270). The filling of this cellar dates from the end of the 16th and the first half of the 17th century and contained very rich finds. This concerns a large quantity of glass including many 'face of Venice' flute glasses, goblets, ice glass and comet cups. The small amount of pottery and the presence of a few wooden teljors are striking. A cursory analysis of the complex seems to indicate that mainly tableware ended up in the pit. This could indicate that a representative space, such as the large hall in the main wing, was located near the pit and that the kitchen was located elsewhere in the complex. At the end of the corridor, against the rear facade of the main wing, a round foundation was also placed (track 52), which is somewhat similar to the round foundation described above further to the north. This may be the foundation of a small staircase to bridge a small height difference. From the corridor, a few passages to the rear area were made in this phase.

There are indications that the eastern part of the rear yard was separated from the rest. This may have been done by a single wall (track 268), but there may have been a corridor that ran to the northern garden wall. The associated wall (track 161) dates from the 17th century, but due to later disturbances it could not be determined whether all the walls that formed the corridor were contemporaneous and continued to the older rear wing.28 The rear yard was separated from the northern neighbouring property by a garden wall. This is a 17th century wall, which is the successor to older garden walls and a plot ditch. This plot boundary was maintained until the 19th century. As far as could be determined, there were no more buildings in a westerly direction up to Struisvogelstraat. So there is a large garden up to Struisvogelstraat.

Due to later excavation activities, most floors etc. from the 17th and 18th centuries were disturbed. It is clear that the floor in the main building was raised a third time to a level of approximately 0,90-1,10 m +NAP. This meant that the floors in both the main building and the rear wings were level. It then seems that there is no longer a cellar. The construction consisting of a main wing on the street with two rear wings was preserved until the 19th century.

Complex gutter system

In the 17th century, a new cesspit was constructed on the rear site (track 236). A complex system of gutters drained water here. A piece of floor or paving was also found that may have belonged to an outbuilding, toilet building? It is striking that the gutters were partly covered with bricks but also partly consisted of open molten gutters. Relatively little but very special find material comes from pit 236 (find numbers 319 and 328). The date lies in the period around 1600-1675. A water well was constructed on the eastern part of the rear site in the 17th century (track 95). The well was very deep; the bottom was not reached but was deeper than 3,40 m -NAP. The bottom part consisted of one or possibly two stacked barrels. A cart wheel lay on top of this, the spokes of which had been removed. This in turn formed the foundation for a brick well ring. Unfortunately, no datable finds were found from the fill, but the presence of IJssel stones indicates that the area was filled in after the 16th century.

Water cellar (track 65) behind the successor of the Huis van Arkel seen to the south

Stone construction phase 3 (mid 19th century)

During the 19th century, the complex was divided into two plots, with large parts being demolished or extensively renovated. The southern building was approximately 12 metres deep and 7,5 m wide. Its design strongly resembled that of the still existing southern neighbouring building. There was a deep cellar in the front house. At the rear, there was a narrow extension, which probably housed the kitchen. Remains of a coal shed and a toilet were also found here. It was striking that a construction was used for the toilet that was similar to that of the neighbouring building. A bricked-in cast iron pot at the end of a drain probably served as a kind of water lock. A complex of gutters and ensured the drainage of sewage. Initially, the gutters probably ran in a southerly direction to a cesspool? on the southern plot. Later, the gutter system was relocated, after which it led to a sewer under the Krijtstraat drained. Under the rear extension there was also a large water cellar, in which rainwater could be collected.

Millstone (track 47) as a cover for a water well seen to the northeast.

The walls and bottom of this were made waterproof by using very hard mortar and multiple layers of hard-baked bricks and tiles. There was also a water well on the backside to which a pump had been connected. The well was covered by a reused millstone. A house mark on this stone was striking, in which the initials 'AVB' can be read. The well was still full of water during the investigation and was very deep (at least 8 m!). The buildings to which these constructions belonged were demolished shortly before the start of the excavation.

Find complexes and individual finds

During the research, a large amount of find material was recovered. This partly originates from raised layers and later disturbances, partly from closed find complexes such as pits and cesspits. In particular, a large amount of organic material of wood and leather also comes from the deeper find complexes. It is not possible to give an exhaustive overview of the find material here. Apart from most of the cesspits, all pottery was examined and determined by G. van den Berg. The other find categories were subjected to a quick scan and determined by R. van Genabeek, insofar as they were available and recognizable. Below, a few larger or striking find complexes will be described and the other find material will be treated thematically.

Manure pits from the 14th century

In the 14th century, a large number of pits were dug across the site. In addition to animal (?) manure, other waste was also deposited in these. Given the fragmented nature of the material, this is not a primary waste dump but rather collected and deposited litter. Due to the humus filling, metal finds in the pits in particular have been well preserved. It is striking that relatively many iron tools ended up in the pits. Most finds come from pits in the southern part. In particular, tracks 196, 455, 503 and 507 yielded a large number of finds. The finds can be dated to the period approx. 1300-1425.

Dagger, iron with tinned cross-guard, 14th century

Track 196 is a large round pit filled with manure. The filling was created in phases. Notable finds include a large dagger, three horseshoes, a wooden shovel handle and a trowel. The dagger is a beautiful specimen with a crossguard and remains of a wooden hilt. A similar dagger was found in Leiden and dates from the 14th century. (Suurmond van Leeuwen 1980 p.30) Both the dagger and the horseshoes could indicate that the site did not have a purely agricultural function but was related to the House of Arkel.

Track 197 is a small pit near track 196. The filling consisted largely of manure, but at the top was the complete skeleton of a pig. Track 455 is a large square manure pit with multiple filling layers. Notable finds include a funnel beaker, lead strips from stained glass windows, a bell, several buckles and a silver ring. The funnel beaker (type S1-tre-2) comes from Siegburg and is decorated with five appliques in the shape of a face. They are a kind of miniature bearded man masks. The beaker can be dated to the end of the 14th or beginning of the 15th century. The lead strips are an indication of glass windows in the then wooden buildings. The silver ring has a smooth exterior in which several (fantasy?) letters and a star are engraved.

Fragment of chainmail or chainmail glove

Track 503 is a very large manure pit and is located further away from the Krijtstraat than the previous pits. Given the finds, this pit was still in use until the 15th century. Notable finds include a beautifully decorated leather knife sheath, a lock from a chest, an iron candle holder and five pins made of a tin/lead alloy. The knife sheath is decorated with an incised plant motif. Under the pins is a so-called bust badge and a coin pin.

Track 507 is another large manure pit, a little further from the Krijtstraat removed. Notable finds include a moustache bone, a decorated knife sheath and a fragment of a spoon drill. The knife sheath is fitted with brass fittings and decorated with a stamped diamond pattern. The dating here also lies in the 14th or early 15th century.

Sword pommel, brass, 1275-1450

Track 508 lies even further to the west. In this part of the excavation, the manure pits are almost connected. Relatively little pottery comes from this pit. The most special find is a so-called sword pommel: a round end of a sword hilt. This is a type that was found in England 'wheel-pommer' is called. This type is current between about 1275 and 1450 (London Museum Medieval Catalogue 1940 p.21-38).

Beer pits

In addition to the pits for animal manure, there were several pits on the site at the end of the 14th or beginning of the 15th century, which were filled with human manure (tracks 194 and 214). Both pits had walls that were lined with wickerwork. This possibly indicates that they had been open for a long time. Presumably, there was a construction above the pits, which housed the toilet. The pits contained relatively little pottery, which seems to be secondary waste thrown into the pit. Given the finds, both pits were still in use in the 15th century.

Cesspools

With the appearance of stone construction at the beginning of the 15th century, the first stone cesspits were also constructed. The oldest cesspit, which belonged to the oldest phase of the house of the lords of Arkel, had been completely emptied by later renovations. During the excavation, five cesspits were investigated: one on the grounds of the (Latin) School (track 39) and four on the grounds of the Arkels (tracks 203, 270, 236 and 482). Track 482 contained no finds.

By far the largest find complex concerns a large round cesspit next to the Latin School (track 39). In addition to a large quantity of pottery, this pit also yielded numerous finds of wood, metal, leather, textiles and other materials. The pit was a so-called wet pit, the contents of which were permanently under water. Heavy objects that ended up in the pit sank to the bottom through the sludge, while light objects such as wood and seeds remained floating. As a result, there is no stratigraphy in the pit that is related to different phases of use of the pit. Based on the contents, the pit can be dated between 1500 and shortly after 1600. Eight pottery objects date from before 1500, while 164 pieces of pottery date from the period 1500-1625. The oldest objects can therefore probably be described as pieces that had already been in circulation for a long time when they ended up in the cesspit.

chalice glass

Of the pottery, approximately 80% could be attributed to a specific functional category. The vast majority is related to food consumption, preparation or storage (68% of the identifiable specimens). The eating utensils do not make a particularly rich impression and mainly consist of bowls and a few plates. It is striking that half of the plates are made of majolica, dating from the second half of the 16th century. In addition, a pewter spoon was also found. The drinking utensils include stoneware jugs with salt glaze. These are often decorated with appliques in the form of bearded men or other Renaissance-style decorations.

Barrel-shaped cup, possibly from the Weser area, dated 1595

Striking is a barrel-shaped cup decorated with appliques in the form of coats of arms and a rosette. The piece is dated (15)95. The baking is white in colour and softer than stoneware. The shape is strongly reminiscent of stoneware from Duingen. We probably have to look for the origin somewhere in the Weser area. In addition to drinking vessels made of stoneware, glassware is also found, including a goblet with a gilded stem in the form of lion masks.

Another rare piece of tableware is a majolica salt cellar in the shape of a small bowl. The tableware used for preparing and cooking food consists mainly of grapes of red earthenware. It is striking that there is only one frying pan for at least 32 grapes, which can also be considered an antique piece that ended up in the pit later. In addition to earthenware cooking pots, a copper pan was also found in the pit. 23 chamber pots were found in the cesspit, both made of red and white earthenware. This concerns 17% of the earthenware tableware, which is relatively much. 7% of the earthenware can be classified in the function category 'heating' and 5% in the category 'medicinal'. In the latter case, it concerns ointment pots, including one albarello of majolica. When we compare the composition of the earthenware complex from the cesspit with other find complexes, it seems to be an 'average' cesspit of the middle class. Only in the tableware are there some unusual, somewhat more luxurious objects and the percentage of chamber pots is quite high. Compare the overview of Carmiggelt (1993).

Spinning top

However, if we include the other material categories in the comparison, the picture appears to be completely different. Many objects can be associated with the Grote School and, from around 1600, the Latin School that stood on the site. On the one hand, these are toys that belonged to the students, on the other hand, objects that have to do with the school itself.

Among the toys are four wooden spinning tops, five wooden balls, a dice, game pieces made of shards, marbles, a blowpipe and a miniature grape. The blowpipe consists of a hollow stick, probably elderwood, from which the core has been removed. The end has been trimmed.

Piece of written parchment

Similar objects have also been found in the cesspit of the Latin School in Groningen (see Willemsen 1998. p.64). A few slates, pieces of chalk, fragments of written parchment, a book cover, a plaque and a rod are objects that can be directly linked to the school. The early dating of the use of slates and chalk is special. The plaque is an object that is almost always linked to a school. It consists of a flat wooden disk with a long handle and was used for punishing.

Wooden plaque

Copies are known from the cesspit of the Latin School in Groningen (Helfrich, Benders and Casparie 1995, p. 84-85) and for example from Haarlem (Greevenbroek 1980, p.120) and Oldenzaal (Ostkamp 2003, p. 85)A bundle of twigs should perhaps be called a rod, although it could also refer to a (small) broom.

Part of a book cover also comes out of the pit. It is a wooden board of 6,4 by 10,0 cm, which was originally covered with leather, of which remnants are still recognizable. On the belly side there are two bronze locks. On the back side there are three holes through which the straps were passed, with which the book was bound.

Wooden cover of a book cover with brass fittings and leather remains

We can therefore conclude that the function of the building to which the cesspit belongs, namely school, cannot be read from the pottery spectrum but is clear from the other find categories. It is possible that the relatively large number of chamber pots can be linked to the school. The headmaster, who lived at or in the school, had several pupils in his boarding house and they probably all had their own chamber pot. It is not clear whether we can link the richer finds from the pit to the household of the headmaster.
On the plot of land of the house of the lords of Arkel, three cesspit contents have been stored.

Volunteers busy sieving cesspool contents

The oldest well, the filling of which has been preserved, is track 203. It is a rectangular stone beer cellar behind the extension behind the large house on the KrijtstraatThe filling can be dated to the period 1500-1625. There is still no clear view of the relationship between the different functional categories in the pit. Some objects can clearly be linked to a higher status. For example, fragments of a majolica plate from Montelupo in Italy from the period 1500-1550 have been found (cf. Hurst et al. 1986, pp. 12-17). A (oil?) jug of white faience dates from the beginning of the 17th century. The origin is not clear.

Cup of white-fired earthenware with lead glaze, probably from Aachen

Some other notable finds include a head of a statuette (?) probably from Aachen (Compare Hurst et al., p. 237 no. 356) and a piece of slate in which the facade of a house has been scratched. This is a sketch of a stepped gable with a canopy above the lower part. The proportions of the facade are such that this does not appear to be the facade of the excavated house.

Slate with scratched drawing of a house with stepped gable and canopy

Directly behind the large wing on the Krijtstraat There was a rectangular cesspit (track 270). Its filling can be provisionally dated to the period 1575-1650. This dating is mainly based on the rich glassware from the pit. In addition to the large amount of glass, relatively little pottery comes from the pit. The glassware mainly consists of glass à la façon de Venise. This includes wing glasses, flute glasses, ice cups and comet cups. There are also goblets, partly on a high base. Given the overrepresentation of tableware, we seem to be dealing with the cesspit near a representative space such as the great hall. The small amount of pottery may be related to this, as much of the cutlery will have been made of metal. Incidentally, the presence of various wooden teljoren in this context is remarkable

Glass beaker decorated with glass threads and gilded blackberry buds, 1675-1725

At the rear of the Arkel complex, a large square cesspit was constructed at the beginning of the 17th century. In the filling of this, which covers the entire 17th century, several special objects were found, including a cup on a high foot made of white-fired earthenware. The outside is partly sprinkled with stone grit and covered with a brown glaze. In English literature, this earthenware is known as 'encrusted ware'According to Hurst, it was manufactured in several production centers in Germany, including Cologne. (Hurst et al. 1986, p. 237-240). The shape of the Gorinchem specimen differs from that from Cologne, so a production centre elsewhere in Germany cannot be ruled out.

Cup, white-fired earthenware with tin glaze, originating from the Weser area (1600-1650)

Another special piece is a small barrel-shaped cup of majolica. The shape corresponds to pottery that is made in the Weser area (Compare Hurst et al. 1986, p. 256 no. 380). However, the cup is provided with tin glaze and a blue plant motif. The piece is therefore one of the majolica products from the Weser area of ​​which hardly any examples are known in the Netherlands. A completely different picture than these rich finds is given by a complete grape of red earthenware (type r-gra-8) from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century. It is a slightly collapsed example, which was probably sold as second choice (det. GvdBerg). Other special finds are of metal and concern a spur, a hairnet and a ring. The hairnet is made of interwoven and spirally wound thin copper wire.

Portefraes, wound wire from a copper alloy, late 16th century

The ring is made of gold and decorated on the outside with a hunting scene in relief. The deep parts are filled with blue enamel. The scene consists of a deer, a dog? a rabbit and a house. On the inside of the ring is the text 'EVERY TIME' engraved and the initials 'HLS'. The ring dates from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century. The finds from the pit could therefore be an indication of a household with high social status. Unfortunately, it is not possible to connect a name to the users.

Ring decorated with hunting scenes, gold originally filled with blue enamel

Other finds

In addition to the finds from the previously described find complexes, many finds come from other traces, layers of elevation and disturbances. Apart from the dating of these structures, the finds can also say something about the use of the excavation site and social and economic aspects of the inhabitants. The most striking finds will be discussed thematically below.

Building materials and household goods

During the investigation, apart from the foundations and floors, relatively little building material was found. This is probably related to the fact that in many places the youngest floor levels had disappeared and most of the rubble was removed after the demolition. We can therefore say little about the appearance of the buildings and their furnishings. Only a limited amount of building material was found from the timber construction phase. A few roof tiles came from the manure pits, which could be an indication of tiled roofs. The pits also yielded a few lead strips from stained glass windows that must have been present in the wooden houses. More building fragments originate from the period of the Latin School and the house of Arkel. A special fragment concerns a richly decorated piece of (Bentheimer?) sandstone with motifs from the early Renaissance.

Worked sandstone door frame (?), 16th century

It was reused as a lintel for a chute. It was probably part of a window or door frame. Two pieces of worked sandstone came from the cesspit of the Latin School. They are a square plinth and a finely sculpted openwork crowning. Based on stylistic features, they can be dated to the 16th century. It is not clear where in the house these pieces were incorporated. It is even almost impossible that they came from the nearby church.

Openwork crowning, 16th century

A fragment of a chimney cheek made of lead stone was found loose on the site. This is a type of chimney that was very popular in the 15th and early 16th century. Worth mentioning is the discovery of a fragment of a stove oven tile from the 15th century. This is a find from a later raising layer, but it could be an indication that a stove oven was present in one of the buildings. In our regions, stove ovens are almost exclusively found in castles, monasteries and large noble houses during that period. The windows were fitted with stained glass. Fragments of both window glass and lead strips have been found. A stained glass window from the end of the 16th or 17th century comes from the cesspit of the Latin School. The hinges and locks include a few hooks from a door handle, a piece of a lock and a few keys. The keys in particular are very beautiful.

Key, probably from a chest or cupboard, 1300-1350

One key has a complicated beard and a diamond-shaped grip divided into four parts. On the shaft, directly under the grip, is a copper band. A similar key has been found, among other places, in the moat of the castle of Gemert. (Janssen 2001, p. 56-57). This key probably dates from the end of the 13th or the first half of the 14th century. A second key also has a complicated beard, but a simple oval grip. In both cases, these are probably keys to a chest. A piece of iron fitting can also be interpreted as furniture fittings. These are rosette-shaped plates, connected by thin iron strips. Similar pieces are known from 's-Hertogenbosch and Oldenzaal, among other places.(Ostkamp 2003, p.88-89). Various objects can be linked to the lighting of the houses. These are iron candle holders, which are finished pointed on one side so that they can be hammered into the wood, while the other side is transformed into a tube. These objects already appear in the 14th century phase. A bit more luxurious is the fragment of a bronze candlestick. Furthermore, fragments of two red earthenware oil lamps have been found.

Eating, drinking and cooking utensils

As usual, a large part of the finds can be attributed to kitchen and cooking utensils. The majority of these have already been discussed in the description of the find complexes. The cooking utensils are mostly earthenware grapes. Furthermore, frying pans and grease traps are found. It is striking that a few metal pans have also been found. These are rarely found in excavations. The eating and drinking utensils are usually tableware, with which the owner could emphasize his social status. In higher social classes, a lot of tableware was made of metal and this is rarely found during an excavation. However, other material categories have also been found, which can be an indication of the high status of the residents of the complex. Examples include the rich and abundant glass in cesspit 270 and rare imports from the Weser area in cesspit 236. In the Middle Ages, it was customary for guests to bring their own knife. They often carried this in a knife sheath that hung from their belt. The handles were sometimes richly decorated. In Gorinchem two beautifully decorated knife handles have been found. One copy has a hexagonal cross-section and is provided with fittings of bone or antler. Another copy is decorated at the end of the handle with engraved copper plates

On one side is an image of a female saint with a sword (?) in her hand, probably Catherine, while the other side is decorated with a representation of Mary with child. This type of knife handle was very common in the second half of the 15th and first half of the 16th century.

Decorated end of knife handle, Catherine with sword and Mary with child

Craft and industry

Relatively few objects have been found on the site that can be attributed to a specific craft. In the 13th and 14th century occupation phase, a few tools were found, including chisels, an auger, a spoon drill, a shovel and a trowel. These finds probably relate to the construction work that took place on the site over the centuries. A number of finds relate to the processing or treatment of textiles, such as spinning wheels and spindles, a few thimbles, needles and a lace bobbin. Such activities can be seen as cottage industry and handicraft and do not say much about the professions that were practiced on the site. Apart from the manure pits, which indicate agricultural activity in the earliest period, there are no indications that specific crafts took place on the site. From the 15th century onwards, the northern plot has served as a school and the southern plot has served as a residential function.

Roskam

It is striking that relatively many objects can be associated with keeping horses. For example, various horseshoes, spurs, buckles for horse harnesses and a curry comb have been found. Curry combs are rarely found in excavations. They consist of a folded iron plate, the long side of which is provided with teeth. The handle is attached to the fold with three attachment points. A similar example was excavated in 's-Hertogenbosch (Janssen 1983, p. 262-263). Although such objects can also be associated with purely agricultural activities, a connection with the higher social status of the inhabitants is obvious. The presence of weapons can also be explained in the same way.

Horse track

Particularly striking are the finds of a large dagger, a sword pommel and fragments of a chain mail. These finds date from the early phase of use of the site.

Finds that are not directly related to craft activities on the site but do provide a lot of information about the textile industry and textile trade are cloth lead. Among the lead found on the site is a special example (Van der Esch 2003, p.18).

Textile lead with coat of arms of Bavaria, Gorinchem, 15th century

The coat of arms of Bavaria is depicted in the center, surrounded by the inscription 'GHORINGHEM'. The occurrence of a separate Bavarian coat of arms is curious as it is normally combined with the coats of arms of Hainaut and Holland. The cloth seal in question dates from the 15th century and is the oldest known of the Gorinchem cloth industry.

Footwear, clothing and jewelry

Various shoes were found in the manure pits and cesspits. These finds have not yet been described. Worth mentioning are a few iron reinforcement points from tripping. Only a few small fragments of clothing were found in the cesspits. These were probably reused as 'toilet paper'. A large number of objects were found spread across the site, which are placed under the category of clothing accessories. These include buckles, clothes hooks, belt tongues and knife sheaths. One knife sheath, dating from the 14th century, is decorated with incised floral motifs and a bird. The end of a belt was often reinforced with a metal fitting, a so-called belt tongue. An example from Gorinchem is decorated with floral motifs.

Knife sheath decorated with floral motifs and bird, 14th century.

In contrast to the clothing accessories, the objects that have been interpreted as jewellery indicate the high status of the inhabitants. These are finger rings, pins and a hairnet. The pins and badges are mainly simple examples of a tin/lead alloy. These are a few so-called bust badges, simple pins in the shape of a rosette and a few pins in the shape of the letter 'M'. Bust badges are small round pins with a central head surrounded by a text. They are dated to the 14th century. (Van Beuningen et al. 2001 p. 420-422) Letter-shaped pins are also found regularly. The letter 'M' may refer to Mary. Two pilgrim badges were also found during the investigation.

In both cases it concerns an insignia of Saint Cornelius, who is venerated in Ninove. This place of pilgrimage was very popular and similar insignia are therefore regularly found. (See among others Van Beuningen and Koldewij 1993, p 150-152 and Van Beuningen et al. 2001 p. 252-253) Finally, worth mentioning is the fragment of what is probably an insignia. It is decorated with a seated animal, possibly a cat.

Education and play

As already discussed in the description of the cesspit on the grounds of the Latin School, much material was found on the grounds that can be linked to the schools on this site. This concerns both toys that must have belonged to the pupils and objects that have to do with education itself. Apart from the cesspit already discussed, toys were found in various contexts spread across the grounds. It is of course quite possible that some of these toys have nothing to do with the school but with children who lived on the southern plot over time.

Worth mentioning are a moustache bone, consisting of a pierced bone and a tin soldier. A relatively large number of writing styluses were found spread across the site. At least 15 of them. Writing styluses were used to write texts in so-called washbasins; boards with a deeper part in which a layer of wax was applied. Washbasins functioned as a notepad and to send short messages. In schools they were used as exercise books. The writing styluses were made of iron and copper as well as bone

Writing pens (styli), brass, iron and bone

The top often has a widened end to smooth out the wax. The use of styluses disappears at the beginning of the 16th century. (Baart et al. 1977, p. 379-380). For this reason, no styluses were found in the cesspit of the Latin School. In addition to many styluses, a large number of counting tokens were found scattered across the site. Counting tokens were used as an aid in making calculations in the context of financial administration.

Counting token with the lion of the evangelist Mark, Nuremberg (1500-1570)

Clerks often had a separate table for this purpose, on which a division was indicated. At the Grote School, pupils were taught to calculate with tokens. It is therefore possible that we can link the large number of tokens to the school. Here too, however, it is true that the objects could also have been used by the neighbours. The most common images on tokens are a rose with three French lilies with an orb on the back (rose-orb token), a ship (ship token) or a lion of Marcus (Marcus token). For a good description of tokens, see Van der linden 1994, p.37-40).

Other finds

A number of finds cannot be classified in one of the above categories, as their exact function is unknown. A beautiful object is a bronze plate with a preserved length of 5,9 cm. It is finished pointedly at the top. In the village, an openwork Gothic niche has been installed in which a saint stands. Below that, the beginning of a second niche can just be seen. It is not clear what this object was used for. It may have been part of a fitting on a chest or something similar. Another special object, the exact function of which is not clear, is a small bronze plate, with a depiction of the torture of Saint Catherine.

Copper plate with image of Saint Catherine at the wheel

It may have been mounted somewhere as decoration, but it also appears to be possible to make prints of the plate. On the left side of the plate, a man is depicted with a sword at the ready to chop off the head of a female figure on the right. On the left side, a few more people are watching. The female figure on the right can be identified as Catherine, given the wheel that is depicted to her right. 1(Compare Nijhof and Janssen 2000) . The scene depicts the martyrdom of Catherine. Because of her criticism of the persecution of Christians by Emperor Maxentius, he sentenced her to death by martyrdom. She was tortured with a sharp wheel, which broke into pieces. She was then beheaded. Unfortunately, the picture is damaged at the height of the woman's head. Given the clothing of the people depicted, the picture can be dated to the first half of the 16th century. Comparable depictions of the torture of Saint Catherine are rare. An engraving by Albrecht Dürer is one of the few parallels.

Drawing by B. Stamkot showing the most important phenomena in the vicinity of the excavation site

In the 11th and 12th centuries, a number of settlements emerged on the riverbank of the Merwede. These formed the basis from which the hinterland was reclaimed. Gorinchem was one of these settlements at the mouth of the Linge. In the course of the 13th and 14th centuries, a town developed here.

Lords of Arkel

The oldest mention of Gorinchem dates from 1224, but the first city rights were not mentioned until 1382 (Stamkot 1982). In this period, however, there was already an urban settlement, whose inhabitants were engaged in trade in addition to fishing. Somewhere in the second half of the 13th century, the city was fortified with earthen walls and moats. In the second half of the 13th and in the 14th century, Gorinchem fell under the lords of Arkel. Members of this family took up an important political position of power in Holland and Utrecht, especially in the 14th century. The power of the lords of Arkel also meant a period of prosperity for the city. This situation would last until the beginning of the 15th century, when the Arkels lost their authority over Gorinchem. Already in the 14th century, Gorinchem experienced strong competition from Dordrecht and this became increasingly stronger after the disappearance of the power of the Arkels. Until the 17th century, Gorinchem had to compete with Dordrecht, often in vain.

In 1263, the Sint Janskerk was consecrated in the southwestern corner of the city. The area where it was built was probably part of a large development block that fell directly under the lord of the land. The city hall and a house were also located in the same block, which in later sources was called the Huis or Hof van Arkel. It is not known exactly how large the Hof van Arkel was. It probably stretched from the Hoge Torenstraat in the south to or almost to the Knipsteeg in the north. It is also unclear how we should imagine this court. The main buildings were probably located on the Hoge Torenstraat. The Hof van Arkel was inhabited by the lord of Arkel in 1405. After the Arkels lost their power in the city in 1412, the court may also have come into other hands. In 1593, there is still mention of a house Arkel or Kervelingen. This then refers to a complex that must be sought in the southern part of the building block Hoge Torenstraat-Krijtstraat-Knipsteeg.

Big School

In the northern part was the Grote School. In a mention from 1435 the Knipsteeg is mentioned 'Scoelsteghe' mentioned from which it can be concluded that there was already a school at that time. Until about 1600, almost nothing is known about the school. It is likely that in this period it was not yet a Latin School but a public school. Here lessons were given in the vernacular and children were taught elementary skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic. In 1600, the first mention is made of a rector of the Latin School 2Busch, A.J. & H.C. Landheer (1983)
Latin school and Gymnasium. Classical education in Gorinchem from 1600, Merewade series 6, Gorinchem, p. 4-5. . The public school was apparently transformed into a Latin School and therefore became more respected. At the head was a rector, who was assisted by assistant teachers. The rector lived in or near the school building and was paid by the city. Education was given in Latin aimed at further study at the university. The students of both the Latin School and the public school could come from the city but also from the surrounding area. In the latter case, they were often boarded with citizens of the city or with the rector or one of the assistant teachers. It is known that the rector had several students boarding.

School class by Jan Steen (ca. 1670)

Not much is known about the buildings of the Latin School in the 17th and 18th centuries, but the few references indicate that the building was already old and dilapidated. The most telling description is that of former rector LF Krayenhof from 1763. In a publication he complains, among other things, about the dilapidated state of the school:

" ..roof and attics are very bad; the beams here and there in the walls rotted off and can no longer be trusted, if even one of the heaviest has sunk with great danger to the suppliant and family; the two side walls are poorly anchored and threaten to fall; rear facade not waterproof; the cellar full of water to the top, the floor of the kitchen eaten away; the portal or entrance of the house threatens to fall, so that one no longer dares to go up to its ceiling and even the neighbours are not out of danger; the cistern, only separated from the secretory cellar by a wall, gives unusable water; the secretory cellar, which undermines a large part of the house and contains a hundred or more wagons of dirt, sometimes causes an unbearable smell; the two chimneys, which are in the house, one in the kitchen, the other in the dining room, smoke so much that attics and walls are screaming witnesses to it, so that the petitioner and his family often have to make do without fire in the winter, there being no chimneys upstairs except for an incompetent one... The lodgings for boarders are also generally very bad, and all without chimneys to be used in times of illness...".

History of investigated plots

Prior to the research, RF van Dijk started an archive research into the history of the investigated plots. Up until now, a number of interesting points for the archaeological research can be distilled from the sources.

In 1533 there is a conflict between organist Gregorius Panneus, who lives on the southern plot and the city (owner of the city school on the northern plot). The documents show that there is a perimeter wall around the school. The school kitchen is located against this wall. The perimeter wall is partly owned by Panneus.

In 1581, there is mention of two houses under one roof on the southern part. It can probably be deduced from this that (part of) the former complex of the Arkels was divided into more houses. In 1605, there is mention of a large house with a small house next to it. It is not entirely clear whether these are the same houses as in 1581. It seems that the mention from 1581 refers to the southern part of the Van Arkel complex.

In 1595, a certain drs. Henricus Vellenius lived in the northern part of the van Arkel complex, that is to say the large house with a small house next to it. This borders on the north side of the Latin School.

After Vellenius' death in 1605, the complex was sold to Gerrit Aarts Salomon in 1610. In 1611, he sold the small house, called 'De Afhang', to Petrus Costerus, deputy headmaster of the Latin School. Included in the purchase was the kitchen behind the northern room of the large house and the yard behind it. This part was separated from the rest of the yard by a wooden fence.

In 1616, the large house (without 'De Afhang'), called De Zalm, was sold by Salomon to Gijsbrecht Hendriks van Wijck, who sold it again in 1618 to army captain Jonkheer Guilliam de Viry.

In 1627, the son of vice-principal Costerus sold 'De Afhang' to the city and the kitchen behind 'De Zalm' to the Viry. The yard behind the kitchen then became part of the large house, just as before 1611. In the 18th century, various sources mainly refer to the large former Van Arkel complex. It then appears that there was mention of, among other things, a large garden and a coach house on Struisvogelstraat.

17-12-2003 Gorcumse Courant
Pillar illegal
The monument for the Hof van Arkel is now located on Struisvogelstraat, but the festive unveiling was postponed last week.
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16-12-2003 The City of Gorinchem
Unveiling of the Hof van Arkel monument in the city centre postponed.
The unveiling of the memorial for the Hof van Arkel by Alderman H. van Santen, which was scheduled for Thursday, December 11, has been postponed.
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12-12-2003 The Telegraph
Gorinchem forgetful
The festive unveiling of a monument in the city centre of Gorinchem has been postponed indefinitely, because the municipality forgot to apply for a building permit for the memorial.
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12-12-2003 The Dordrecht resident
Memorial column Gorcumse Van Arkels illegal construction
Municipality forgot to apply for permit. The monument with the column base of the Hof van Van Arkel dating from 1405 at the height of the Gorcumse V&D was built illegally.
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10-12-2003 The Telegraph
Old find becomes monument
Tomorrow (Thursday) the municipality of Gorinchem will unveil an archaeological find from around 1405 in the city centre.
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10-12-2003 Utrechts Nieuwsblad Edition Rivierenland
Memory of Hof van Arkel
Gorinchem will have a new monument starting tomorrow. Alderman H. van Santen will unveil the monument tomorrow at eleven o'clock - a two-metre column - behind the V&D in the Struisvogelstraat, at the height of the Kazernepoort.
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10-12-2003 Metro
Municipality of Gorinchem unveils discovery from 1405
Tomorrow, the municipality of Gorinchem will unveil an archaeological find from around 1405 in the city center.
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10-12-2003 Gorcumse Courant
Memory of Hof van Arkel
In memory of the Hof van Arkel, which must have stood about five centuries ago on the site of the current V&D department store, a special memorial will be unveiled on Thursday morning.
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10-12-2003 General Daily Newspaper
Medieval find unveiled as monument
Tomorrow, the municipality of Gorinchem will unveil an archaeological find from around 1405 in the city center.
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05-08-2003 The City of Gorinchem
Unique memorial Hof van Arckel
At the initiative of city archaeologist Pieter Floore and Herman Nieuwdorp (spatial development department of the municipality), a memorial will be placed in the city for the Hof van Arckel
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30-07-2003 Gorcumse Courant
Monument Hof van Arkel
Opposite the V&D there will be a memorial for the Hof van Arckel.
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22-01-2003 Gorcumse Courant
Excavations of the city fascinate many Gorcumers.
Large turnout at city archaeologist's lecture
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17-09-2002 The City of Gorinchem
Busy Monument Day and Do-Yes! Market
The Open Monument Day was well attended last Saturday in Gorinchem.
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14-09-2002 The Dordrecht resident
Exciting discovery of murder weapon, archaeologists cherish V&D construction site Gorcum
The archaeologists at the construction site of V&D on the Gorcumse Krijtstraat found a fourteenth century murder weapon this week.
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10-09-2002 The City of Gorinchem
Krijtstraat: looking for the court of the Van Arkels
This week, archaeologists have been at the site where the Krijtstraat Traces of the 14th century court of the Van Arkels have been found at a V&D fortress.
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11-09-2002 Gorcumse Courant
Cool building discovered next to Hof
Excavations at the Hof van Arkel yield surprises. The excavations at the Krijtstraat are increasingly beginning to provide an image of the old historic city center.
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10-09-2002 The City of Gorinchem
Archaeological research Krijtstraat
The archaeological research at the Krijtstraat has already yielded several finds.
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07-09-2002 Rivierenland Daily Newspaper
Discovery of city remains in Gorinchem
During excavations in Gorinchem, the very old remains of the city were found. These are parts of the foundation of a noble house from the 14th century, which belonged to Jan van Arkel.
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06-09-2002 General Daily Newspaper
14th century foundation excavated
During excavations in Gorinchem, parts of the foundations of a noble house from the 14th century, which belonged to Jan van Arkel, were found.
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06-09-2002 The Dordrecht resident
A voice from the past
Personal message from nineteenth century Gorcumer found
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06-09-2002 Trouw
Oldest city remains excavated in Gorinchem
During excavations in Gorinchem, parts of the foundations of a noble house from the 14th century, which belonged to Jan van Arkel, were found.
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05-09-2002 Radio Rijnmond
Ancient city remains excavated in Gorinchem
During excavations in Gorinchem, the very old remains of the city were found. These are parts of the foundation of a noble house from the 14th century, which belonged to Jan van Arkel.
Listen...

05-09-2002 BN/De Stem
Ancient city remains excavated in Gorinchem
During excavations in Gorinchem, the very old remains of the city were found. These are parts of the foundation of a noble house from the 14th century, which belonged to Jan van Arkel. Even older remains were found under the foundation, namely of houses from the 13th century.
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05-09-2002 The Dordrecht resident
Remains of Hof Van Arkel found, historical discovery in Gorcum city center
Archaeologists have discovered the remains of what is most likely the Hof Van Arkel in the city centre of Gorinchem.
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28-08-2002 Gorcumse Courant
Toilet excavated
Many old monastery bricks, five writing pens, attributes that refer to earlier pilgrimages to Heukelum, skulls of a chicken and a small dog.
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22-08-2002 The Dordrecht resident
The ground is like a book
The excavations at the V&D construction site in Gorinchem have been going on for a week and a half. Frans van Houwelingen (61) from Sliedrecht helps dig two days a week.
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21-08-2002 The Dordrecht resident
Nice finds in the first week during excavations in Gorinchem
Oh dear, look a fourteenth century chicken. One fifteenth century wall after another is already appearing during the second week of the excavations at the Gorcumse Krijtstraat.
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20-08-2002 The City of Gorinchem
First objects in Krijtstraat gevonden
The archaeologists who are working on the vacant lot at the Krijtstraat found the first objects.
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20-08-2002
Mystery of the Krijtstraat remains hidden for a while
The sun is burning brightly this afternoon. Martin Veen of the archaeology working group of Gorinchem wears a cap to protect his skull from the blinding rays.
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17-08-2002 The Dordrecht resident
Archaeologists find 15th century 'ballpoint pens'
'Saepe stilum vertas', these words must have been heard regularly in the classrooms of the Latin School at the Scoelsteghe in Gorinchem.
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14-08-2002 Gorcumse Courant
A glimpse into the past
The first curious viewers report to the gate at the Krijtstraat, but there is not much news to report yet.
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13-08-2002 The City of Gorinchem
Archaeologists at work
For some time now there has been a special view from the Groenmarkt to the Kazerneplein.
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07-08-2002 Gorcumse Courant
High expectations for excavations at Krijtstraat 'Hof van Arkel' is hidden.
It is a unique view from the Groenmarkt right on the Kazerneplein.
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03-08-2002 The Dordrecht resident
Archaeological associations in the region are allowed to participate in the excavation
Gorinchem will start excavations in a little over a week at the location where V&D will open its doors at the end of 2003. Expectations are high. The archaeologists hope to find remains of the 'Court of the Lords of Arkel', the family that left its mark on the history of the eastern Alblasserwaard.
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24-07-2002 The Dordrecht resident
Floore hopes in Krijtstraat to stumble upon Hof van Arkel.
Gorinchem is on the eve of an exciting excavation in the city center.
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02-07-2002 The City of Gorinchem
Possible surprise in Krijtstraat
Large clouds of dust rose from the site at the Krijtstraat, but now that the demolition work is almost complete, the archaeologists' hearts are beating faster.
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03-07-2002 Gorcumse Courant
Monumental
It is a bit of a shock for many of the city's residents. The school on the Krijtstraat, the place where thousands of Gorcumers learned to read and write over the years, no longer exists.
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28-06-2001 The Dordrecht resident
V&D construction site may house Van Arkel court
Archaeologists have high expectations at the prospect of excavations at the construction site for V&D in the city centre of Gorinchem.
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19-06-2002 Gorcumse Courant
Unique opportunity for research location Krijtstraat
Archaeologists happy with demolition. The mighty vehicles of the demolition company are in the Struisvogelstraat.
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